India’s Foreign Policy: Current Challenges, Strategic Autonomy and Priorities (BPSC Mains Notes)

India’s foreign policy in 2025-26 has had to manage a transactional United States (50 per cent tariffs and a $100,000 H-1B visa fee in 2025), a guarded thaw with China after the Tianjin SCO summit, a Saudi–Pakistan defence pact, war in West Asia and a weakened United Nations. Through it, the stated approach has stayed the same: strategic autonomy and multi-alignment, or, in S. Jaishankar’s words, leverage the dominant power, collaborate with convergent powers and manage the competition with China.

These notes, built around the developments of late 2025, give the concepts, quotes, current context, challenges, priorities and doctrines that a BPSC Mains GS Paper II answer on India’s foreign policy needs. Dates and figures are as of the events described; where a situation has moved on, check the latest news before the exam.

Current context (as of late 2025)

• US tariffs of 50 per cent on most Indian goods from August 2025, half of them a penalty for buying Russian oil.
• A $100,000 fee on new H-1B visa petitions, by US proclamation of September 2025.
• Modi–Xi meeting on the sidelines of the SCO summit in Tianjin (31 August 2025), the Prime Minister’s first visit to China in seven years.
• Trump–Xi meeting at Busan, South Korea (30 October 2025), and talk of a US–China “G2”.
• UN at 80 and the “age of reckless disruption.”
• Saudi Arabia–Pakistan Strategic Mutual Defence Agreement (17 September 2025).
• Growing US–Pakistan relations.
• Gen-Z protests in Nepal (September 2025), which brought down the Oli government.
• Trump’s 20-point Gaza peace plan (29 September 2025) and the ceasefire that followed in October.
• Israel’s strike on Hamas leaders in Doha, Qatar (9 September 2025).
• India–UK Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA), signed on 24 July 2025.
• Rise of a multiplex global order, a concept associated with Amitav Acharya.
• Rise of new peacemakers, personalism and declinism.
• Rise of the US as a “rogue superpower,” a description associated with Michael Beckley, referring to unilateral and transactional policies and reduced commitment to global institutions.

Important quotes

• S. Jaishankar: India should leverage the dominant power, collaborate with convergent powers and manage competition with China.
• Vijay Gokhale: India has moved from non-alignment to issue-based alignment.
• Harsh V. Pant: India aspires to be a rule-maker, not merely a rule-taker.

Meaning of foreign policy

Foreign policy is a tool to protect and promote a country’s national interests, including territorial integrity and the protection of its people.

It contains both continuity and change.

• S. Jaishankar: Foreign policy involves forging convergences and managing divergences.
• Shivshankar Menon: Foreign policy is about mini-maxing, meaning minimising harm and maximising gains.

Diplomacy

Diplomacy is the established method of influencing foreign governments through dialogue, negotiation and other means short of war and violence.

Examples include climate diplomacy, transit diplomacy and energy diplomacy.

What makes a good foreign policy?

• Protects national security and advances people’s aspirations.
• Strengthens the country’s ability to respond to unexpected developments.
• Benefits ordinary citizens.
• Balances competing international interests.
• Follows an India First approach.
• Uses multi-alignment to engage countries such as the US, Russia, China and Japan.

Examples of citizen-focused diplomacy:

• Operation Ganga: Evacuation of Indian students from Ukraine.
• Operation Kaveri (2023): Evacuation of about 3,800 Indians from Sudan, including members of the Hakki Pikki tribal community from Karnataka.

A useful benchmark for successful diplomacy is whether it improves the everyday welfare of citizens, including through affordable energy.

SCO summit at Tianjin: foreign policy implications

• PM Modi advocated civilisational dialogue among SCO countries.
• President Xi Jinping announced the Global Governance Initiative.
• Modi and Xi agreed on the need for a multipolar world order.
• India called for stable bilateral relations based on mutual respect, mutual interest and mutual sensitivity.
• The SCO declaration criticised coercive, unilateral economic measures.

Concerns regarding China

• China’s assistance to Bangladesh in reviving the Lalmonirhat airbase, near the Siliguri Corridor.
• China’s support for Pakistan during Operation Sindoor.
• China’s construction of a major dam in Medog County, Tibet, on the Brahmaputra.
• Concerns over China’s role in strategic infrastructure and regional security.

Trump’s Gaza Peace Plan

Background

• The October 2023 Hamas attack on Israel was followed by a devastating Israeli military response and a major humanitarian crisis in Gaza.
• The plan proposed a 20-point framework for ending the conflict and rebuilding Gaza.

Major proposals

1. Transform Gaza into a demilitarised, terror-free and redeveloped territory.
2. Hamas to return all hostages and disarm.
3. Israel to release approximately 2,000 prisoners, including women and children.
4. Ensure full humanitarian aid through the UN and other organisations.
5. Offer amnesty to Hamas leaders willing to surrender their weapons, with safe passage for those who wish to leave.
6. Establish a transitional Board of Peace, comprising technocratic Palestinian representatives and international experts, chaired by Trump.
7. Develop an economic reconstruction plan involving business and real-estate development.
8. Israel would not occupy or annex Gaza; Israeli forces would withdraw in stages, with international stabilisation forces taking over.
9. Provide a conditional pathway towards eventual Palestinian statehood.

Key concerns

• The proposal appears to reflect Israeli demands disproportionately.
• Hamas would have to surrender hostages without a guaranteed ceasefire or Israeli withdrawal.
• External control over Gaza raises concerns about sovereignty and long-term stability.
• The plan gives limited attention to Palestinian political aspirations, the West Bank and the two-state solution.
• Reconstruction may favour US businesses.
• Funding, land rights and reparations remain unresolved.

India’s approach

• Maintain support for Palestine and a two-state solution.
• Balance relations with Israel and Arab countries.
• Ensure that Palestinian aspirations are represented in any peace settlement.
• Support a sustainable peace process based on dialogue, security and political legitimacy.

US–China G2 meeting

Background

Meeting between US President Donald Trump and Chinese President Xi Jinping in Busan, South Korea, on 30 October 2025.

Outcomes

• A one-year trade truce.
• China suspended its October 2025 rare-earth export controls for a year.
• The US halved its “fentanyl” tariff, taking the overall tariff on Chinese goods from 57% to 47%, and suspended higher reciprocal tariffs for a year.
• China agreed to resume imports of US soybeans.
• Both leaders agreed to reciprocal visits in 2026; Trump visited Beijing in May 2026.

Positive implications for India

• US–China cooperation may improve global economic stability.
• A reduction in trade tensions could create scope for easing tariffs affecting India.
• Greater availability of rare earths could benefit India’s semiconductor sector.

Concerns for India

• A US–China duopoly could weaken multilateralism.
• A G2 arrangement could overlook Chinese aggression and the interests of other countries.
• It could reduce the strategic relevance of the QUAD.
• India could face greater pressure to accept US terms in future trade negotiations.

Key takeaway: India needs to preserve strategic autonomy and prevent great-power cooperation from becoming a mechanism for decisions that exclude other countries.

The UN at 80: crisis of multilateralism

Major challenges

1. Security Council deadlock: Vetoes obstruct collective action.
2. Unilateral policies: Tariffs, military conflicts and disregard for international rules weaken the global order.
3. Rise of authoritarianism: Democratic norms and institutions face growing pressure.
4. Lack of representation: The permanent five members of the UNSC retain disproportionate influence.
5. Funding shortages: Reduced funding threatens progress towards the SDGs.
6. Deglobalisation: Trade restrictions, migration barriers and supply-chain fragmentation undermine cooperation.

Competing approaches to global challenges

• Trumpism: Emphasises sovereignty, reverses aspects of globalism and questions the effectiveness of multilateral institutions.
• Multilateral approach: Seeks to restore international cooperation and reform global institutions to make them more effective.

Implications for India

India benefits from a predictable international system in which rules constrain the use of power. It should advocate institutional reform, stronger international norms and greater representation for developing countries.

Pakistan–Saudi Arabia defence pact

Key features

• The two countries signed a Strategic Mutual Defence Agreement.
• It provides for defence cooperation and joint deterrence against aggression.
• The agreement states that aggression against either country will be considered aggression against both.

Implications for India

• It strengthens strategic and defence cooperation between Pakistan and Saudi Arabia.
• It demonstrates the growing interconnection between South Asian and West Asian security.
• It complicates India’s effort to maintain strong relationships with both Israel and Gulf countries.
• India must assess the pact’s security implications without unnecessarily damaging its regional partnerships.

The present global order

Global order refers to the arrangement of countries on the international stage according to their power and authority.

Major forms of global order

• Bipolar world: Two dominant power centres, historically the US and the USSR.
• Unipolar world: One dominant power.
• G2 world: A system dominated by the US and China.
• Multipolar world: Several major powers exercise influence.
• Multiplex world: Multiple state and non-state actors shape global rules and outcomes.
• Global disorder: Weakening institutions, geopolitical rivalry and unpredictable unilateral actions.

Amitav Acharya’s multiplex order

• Western primacy is eroding, creating space for a more equitable international structure.
• No single state dominates every aspect of global affairs.
• State and non-state actors jointly shape international norms.
• Civilisational differences should be managed through cooperation rather than confrontation.
• The goal is a confluence of civilisations, based on negotiated consensus rather than imposed norms.

Why Bharat matters: India’s comprehensive exceptionalism

The 7Ds

1. Demography: A large, youthful working-age population can drive economic growth.
2. Democracy: Democratic institutions, pluralism and peaceful coexistence strengthen India’s global appeal.
3. Dynamic economy: Economic growth and market demand increase India’s international influence.
4. Diaspora: Overseas Indians contribute through remittances, leadership positions, public diplomacy and soft power.
5. Defence: India’s military capabilities and defence expenditure support its strategic role.
6. Digitisation: Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI), UPI and the IT sector demonstrate India’s technological capacity.
7. Diplomacy: Initiatives such as Vaccine Maitri and cultural diplomacy strengthen India’s international partnerships.

Five strategic arcs

These five arcs, associated with Rajiv Sikri, describe India’s surrounding geopolitical and economic environment.

Challenges to India’s foreign policy

Geopolitical challenges

• US–China competition and the emergence of a G2 world.
• Russia–Ukraine conflict.
• Chinese expansionism.
• Strategic competition resembling a new Cold War.
• Weaponisation of trade and economic relationships.
• Risk of losing India’s position as a strategic swing state.
• India’s declining geopolitical relevance in some international calculations.

Geo-economic challenges

• Punitive tariffs, trade wars and economic protectionism.
• Reshoring of manufacturing and supply chains.
• Stricter visa and immigration rules.
• Weakening multilateral economic institutions such as the WTO and IMF.

Challenges involving international narratives

• Adverse international perceptions of India reflected in some global indices.
• Domestic political developments affecting India’s international image.
• Western dominance in the dissemination of global news.

Neighbourhood challenges

• The three Us identified by S. Jaishankar.
• Growing US–Pakistan engagement.
• China–Pakistan cooperation and the threat of a two-front security challenge.
• Pakistan and Sri Lanka’s economic difficulties.
• Gen-Z protests and political instability in Nepal.
• Maritime security concerns.
• Strategic competition in the Indo-Pacific.
• Challenges requiring stronger India–Iran engagement.

Global challenges

• Cybersecurity and emerging technologies.
• Climate change.
• Weakening multilateralism.
• Grey-zone warfare: Activities between ordinary peace and open armed conflict, including coercion, disinformation and other indirect methods.

India’s foreign policy priorities

1. Achieve Viksit Bharat by 2047.
2. Pursue pragmatic diplomacy centred on the India First principle.
3. Counterbalance an unpredictable US, an unresponsive EU and an aggressive China.
4. Strengthen India’s position as a global leader.
5. Become a rule-shaper rather than merely a rule-taker.

Opportunities for India

• Technological advances that democratise access to information.
• International cooperation on climate change.
• Leadership in Digital Public Infrastructure.
• Representation of the Global South.
• Building on India’s G20 presidency.
• Shaping the global agenda through G20, COP, the International Solar Alliance (ISA), OSOWOG and the International Year of Millets.
• Acting as a consensus-builder in a polarised world.

Way forward

Five levels of strategic balancing

According to Happymon Jacob, India needs to balance competing interests at five levels:

1. US–China: Preserve strategic autonomy amid great-power competition.
2. West Asia: Manage relationships across a region of competing interests.
3. Russia–China: Navigate their partnership while protecting India’s own interests.
4. China–Pakistan: Address regional security and stability.
5. Afghanistan: Pursue a strategy aimed at peace and stability in the wider region.

Four pillars of India’s global influence

India’s international influence rests on four domestic foundations:

• Domestic economic growth.
• Social inclusion.
• Political democracy.
• Liberal constitutional order.

These foundations are important because international influence depends partly on domestic economic strength, institutional credibility and social cohesion.

Important foreign policy doctrines and principles

• Panchsheel principles: Five principles of peaceful coexistence.
• Gujral Doctrine: A neighbourhood policy emphasising accommodation and cooperation, particularly towards smaller neighbours.
• Neighbourhood First: Prioritising relations with neighbouring countries.
• SAGAR: Security and Growth for All in the Region.
• Vishwaguru: India’s aspiration to contribute global leadership and knowledge.
• Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam: “The world is one family.”

Article 51 of the Constitution

Article 51 of the Directive Principles of State Policy provides for:

1. Promotion of international peace and security.
2. Maintenance of just and honourable relations between nations.
3. Encouragement of peaceful settlement of international disputes.
4. Respect for international law and treaty obligations.

Bihar angle

Bihar shares a 729-km open border with Nepal across seven districts, so Nepal’s political turbulence, the Kosi and Gandak flood-management agreements, and cross-border trade through Raxaul and Jogbani are foreign-policy questions with a direct Bihar dimension. Bihar is also central to India’s Buddhist diplomacy: Bodh Gaya, Nalanda University and Vaishali anchor ties with Japan, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam and Bhutan, and the India–Nepal Ramayana and Buddhist circuits run through the state.

Conclusion

India must remain flexible in its engagement with major powers, strengthen partnerships across Asia and Europe, and pursue economic reforms at home.

Its foreign policy should preserve strategic autonomy while engaging Washington where interests converge, exploring economic opportunities with Beijing where feasible, and maintaining independent relations with other major powers.

The central objective is to translate India’s economic, demographic, technological and diplomatic strengths into sustained international influence.

Frequently asked questions

What is strategic autonomy in India’s foreign policy?

The freedom to take decisions on the basis of India’s own interests rather than alliance obligations: engaging the United States, Russia, China, Europe and the Gulf at the same time, and issue-based alignment instead of the older non-alignment.

What are the main challenges to India’s foreign policy in 2025-26?

US tariffs and visa restrictions, China’s support to Pakistan and its Brahmaputra dam, the Saudi–Pakistan defence pact, the Russia–Ukraine and West Asia wars, instability in Nepal and Bangladesh, a weakening WTO and UN, and the risk of a US–China “G2” that sidelines other powers.

What is the Gujral Doctrine?

A set of principles from 1996-97 under I. K. Gujral: India does not ask smaller neighbours for reciprocity, no South Asian country lets its territory be used against another, non-interference in internal affairs, respect for sovereignty, and settlement of disputes through bilateral negotiation.

What does Article 51 of the Constitution say?

Article 51, a Directive Principle, asks the state to promote international peace and security, maintain just and honourable relations between nations, respect international law and treaty obligations, and encourage settlement of international disputes by arbitration.

Related pages

• BPSC previous year question papers, 56th to 71st, with answer keys
• BPSC exam pattern and syllabus 2026
• 40 Polity topics for BPSC Mains GS Paper II
• Shanghai Cooperation Organisation: Tianjin summit notes
• India–Bhutan relations
• Global indices and reports quiz
• Bihar current affairs, May 2026
• BPSC essay topics, 68th to 71st Mains

Sources

Checked 31 October 2026.

• Ministry of External Affairs: statements and speeches
• S. Jaishankar: speeches and interviews, 2025
• White House: proclamation on H-1B visa fee (September 2025) and the 20-point Gaza plan (29 September 2025)